CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW Hollow clay blocks are a type of building material that has gained popularity in recent years duetotheirsustainability,thermalinsulationproperties,andstructuralbenefits.Thisliterature review aims to summarize the current state of knowledge on HCBs, focusing on their properties, applications, and benefits (Smith, J., et al. (2020). Hollow clay blocks are widely used in construction due to their advantages, such as thermal insulation,(Johnson .M et al. (2019) Sound absorption, Acoustic insulation(Wang, Y., et al. (2018),energy efficiency (Li, Z., etal. (2016). and reduced weight. However, their compressive strength (Williams, M., et al. 2018, Davis, J., et al. 2017) and water absorption (Lee, S., et al. (2016) is a critical factor in determining their structural integrity. This study aims to investigate the compressive strength of hollow clay blocks and identify the factors that affect it. The energy efficiency of hollow clay block buildings. Hollow clay blocks are recognized for their thermal inertia and energy efficiency enhancements. By integrating passive measures, the thermal comfort and energy savings of buildings can be significantly improved (Li, Z., et al. (2016). Designation of a hydrocarbon reservoir as unconventional emphasizes the fact that the rock acts as a source, store/reservoir and seal of the hydrocarbons it contains. In contrast, the conventional reservoir usually involves the accumulation of hydrocarbons after their generation and migration from a different and often distant source rock, as well as being sealed by an impermeable cap rock belonging to another lithological formation. An unconventional hydrocarbon reservoir may, therefore, be regarded as being self-sourced and of a highly impermeable nature, usually requiring stimulation through induced hydraulic fracturing if it is to be commercially viable. Unconventional hydrocarbon reservoirs are often described as “shales” but the meaning ofthis term varies according to the context in which it is used. For the geologist the defining characteristics of shale are that it is a sedimentary rock, fine-grained and fissile or laminated. A fairly comprehensive definition of shale is that of the American Geological Institute (Bates and Jackson, 1980). “A fine-grained detrital sedimentary rock formed by consolidation (especiallycompression)ofclay,siltormud.Itischaracterizedbyafinelylaminated structure, which imparts a fissilityapproximatelyparallel to the beddingalongwhich the rock breaks readily into thin layers,…., and by an appreciable content of clay minerals and detrital quartz; a thinly laminated or fissile claystone, siltstone or mudstone. It normally contains at least 50% silt with 35% clay or fine mica fraction and 15% chemical or authigenic material.” In the petroleum industry, however, the term “shale” is used in a very much broader senseand may refer to sedimentary rocks which are not fissile, laminated or particularly fine- grained,aswell as thoserocksfallingwithintheabovegeologicaldefinition.Forexample,the Bowland shale in the UK is a formation of Mississippian age and contains a wide range of lithologies, including calcareous mudstones, siltstones, turbiditicpackstones and even sandstones(Clark et al., 2014).Such heterogeneityin nominalshaleformationsisalsotypical of gas shale formations in the USA. Thus, the clay content of different lithologies of the well- known Barnett Shale varies from 8 to 48% in siliceous mudstones, 7 to 34% in calcareous mudstones and 8 to 24% in calcareous, turbiditicpackstones and with regard to the Utica Shale play in New York State, according to one geologist it should be more appropriately referred to as the “Utica shale and associated organic-rich calcareous shale and interbedded limestone and shale play.” Such lithological heterogeneity must be borne in mind when considering the possible influenceof clay mineralogy on hydrocarbon exploitation. It is generally agreed that it isimportant to characterize the mineralogy of the bulk rock when attempting to evaluate the potential quality of unconventional hydrocarbon reservoir rocks. Mineralogy is known to impinge upon a variety of petrophysical parameters including, for example, porosity, permeability, water saturation, as well as attributes relatedto rock strength such as Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio which are crucial foroptimizing the potential ofthe formation for hydraulic fracture stimulation. A recent contribution to the influence of mineralogy on the quality of unconventional reservoirsdevelopedaclassificationfororganicmudstones,basedonternaryplotsofthenormalized contents of clay minerals, carbonate minerals and silicate minerals, as estimated from geochemical logs (Gameroet al., 2013). This classification subdivides organic mudstones into 16 different categories occupying separate areas on the ternary plot and was considered to provide a qualitative means of visualizing the relationship between overall bulk mineralogy of the rock and indicators of reservoir and completion qualities. It was found that there was a strong correlation between bulk mineralogy and completion quality, based on indicators such as minimum closure stress and mineral brittleness index. Therewasalsoagoodcorrelationbetweenmineralogyandreservoirquality,basedon parameters such as effective porosity, matrix permeability and hydrocarbon saturation, although the correlation was not as strong as that between mineralogy and completion quality. However, the mineralogy of unconventional hydrocarbon shale reservoirs has been less extensively characterized than conventional sandstone reservoirs, at least by core analyses usingstandardanalytical techniquessuchas X-RayDiffraction (XRD)and ScanningElectron Microscopy (SEM). For the unconventional reservoirs, the usual industry practice is to usethe mineralogical analyses of selectedsamples that areavailable to calibrate the petrophysical data acquired by downhole logging tools. In this way, quantitative (or semi-quantitative) mineralogical analyses are recorded over the complete drilled stratigraphic sequence. These data are regarded as extremely important as “the relative concentrations of the(mineral) constituents have the potential to make or break a potential resource play” (Alexander et al., 2011).In this paper, the mineralogy, and particularly the clay mineralogyof a wide variety of unconventional reservoirs in the USA is reviewed, with the broad aim of trying to establish a better understanding of the relationship between individual clay minerals and petrophysical properties, particularly those properties that could relate to the commercial exploitation of the hydrocarbonresourceinthereservoirrock. The information has been compiled from a variety of sources, including peer-reviewedpapersinthe scientific journals, conference presentations, university theses and occasionally commercial literature. Such a broad approach was necessitated by the rather fragmentary information available, particularlyon the clay mineralogy, of many of the shale sequences investigated. The data were interpreted using the fundamental particle concept for mixed-layer clay minerals of (Nadeau et al. (1984) rather than the traditional view of these clays consisting of MacEwan-type crystallites made up of about 5 to 15 unit layers in thickness where there is three-dimensional regularity across the smectite interlayers. Review will be arranged in inverse chronological order of the reservoir rock, namely starting with the youngest formations and ending with the oldest ones. Hollowclayblocksarealsolightweight, durable with cavitiesweight, which Improvethermal insulation, and minimize material use. Traditional solid clay bricks consume more raw materials, energy, and labor, contributing to environmental degradation. Hollow clay blocks offers a sustainable alternative by reducing embodied carbon, enhancing cost. One key study (Varshney (2018) explores the properties of hollow concrete blocks, which share similarities with hollow clay blocks in terms of design and application. The paper emphasizes that the compressive strength of hollow blocks varies based on mix proportions and thereplacement of aggregateswith materials likevermiculite, quarrydust, or cement kiln dust. Although focused on concrete blocks, the principles of void structure and material substitution are applicable to hollow clay blocks, suggesting compressive strengths typically range from 3.5 to 15 MPa, depending onblock geometry and composition. The study underscores the blocks' role in reducing structural dead loads, a benefit also attributedtohollowclayblocksinmasonryconstruction.(Silvaetal.(2018),specifically addressing hollow clay block masonry. This study analyzes the compressive strength of masonry prisms made from hollow clay blocks, tested at 7 and 28 days, with block strengths ranging from 6.0 to over 15.0 MPa. The efficiency ratio (prism strength

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OPTIMIZING THE STABILIZATION OF CEMENT LIME RATIOS ON THE COMPRESSIVESTRENGHTANDDURABILITYINHOLLOWCLAYBLOCK PRESENTED BY …………………………….. SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, SCHOOL OF NATURAL RESOURCES ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY CIVIL ENGINEERING SUPERVISED BY: ……………………… …………… 2025. CERTIFICATION This is to certify that this project report was carried out by ………… With matriculation number …………………., and has been read and approve in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of Higher National Diploma (HND) in the Department of Civil Engineering, School of Natural resources of the ……………………. ------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ………………………………. DATE PROJECT SUPERVISOR ------------------------------------- ----------------------------- …………………………………. DATE HEAD OF DEPARTMENT DEDICATION This project is dedicated to Almighty God, the beginning and the end, the owner of all universe for spearing our lives and given us opportunity to complete this course. ACKNOWLEDGMENT Our appreciation goes to God Almighty, for his mercy and kindness towards us, There was never lack of want throughout this entire Project. We would like to express our special gratitude to our beloved Parents for their parental support. We pray God reward them abundantly. We would like to thank and commend the effort of our Project supervisor (……………………..) for providing there invaluable guidance and suggestions towards the success of this project, Thank you for playing your part in ensuring that the vision speaks in our life. May God Bless you abundantly. We appreciate the effort of our Head of Department (HOD) …………………………….. for all his support towards our education. On the same note, We say a big thank you to the entire lecturers in our department for their regular advise and support. May God graciously be with you. ABSTRACT The project, titled“Optimizing The Stabilization Of Cement Lime Ratio On The Comperessive Strenght And Durability In Hollow Clay Blocks’’ investigates the optimization of cement-lime ratios for stabilizing hollow clay blocks to enhance their compressive strength and durability, addressing the construction industry’s needs for sustainable, eco-friendly materials. The primary aim is to achieve a balance between compressive strength and durability through experimental analysis and optimize the cement-lime ratio in stabilizing hollow clay blocks to achieve a balance between compressive strength and durability. This study targets three core objectives: (i) to analyze the relationship between varying cement lime-ratio, (ii) to measure compressive strength and durability of hollow clay blocks, (iii) to evaluate the durability of hollow clay blocks under varying environmental conditions.The scope of this researchencompasses a systematic analysis of variouscement-lime ratio in stabilizing hollow clay blocks to achieve a balance between compressive strength and durability, A tests is conduct for compressive strength and durability of hollow clay blocks and evaluate the durability of hollow clay blocks under varying environmental conditions. Methodology involves laboratory testson fine aggregates (particle size distribution, specific gravity, moisture content per BS EN standards), molding blocks (225×225×450mm with hollows), curing at 20°C and 95% humidity for 28 days, The results identify optimal ratios for superior srenght and reveal production techniques differences, contributing to cost-effective, durable blocks.The study promotes hollow clay blocks as a viable alternative, reducing carbon emissions and resource use while advancing global sustainability goals in construction. TABLE OF CONTENTS CERTIFICATION………………………………………………………………………………………………i DEDICATION…………………………………………………………………………………………………ii ACKNOWLEDGMENT…………………………………………………………………………………… iii ABSTRACT……………………………..…………………………………………………………………....iv TABLE OF CONTENT……………..………………………………………………….……………vii LIST OF TABLE………………………………………………………………………….………...viii LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………………………......i PAGEREF _Toc181508332 \h x LIST OF PLATES……………………………………………………………………………………. PAGEREF _Toc181508332 \h x CHAPTER ONE……….……………………………………………………………………………...1 INTRODUCTION….…………………………………………………………………………………1 1.1 Background of the Study…….………..…………………………………………………………..1 1.2Statement of the Problem……………….…………………………………………….…………..6 1.3 Aim and Objective…………………………………..……………………………………………7 1.4 Justification of the Study………………………………………….………………………………7 1.5 Scope of the Study………………………..……………………………………………………….8 CHAPTER TWO….…………………………………………………………………………………..9 LITERATURE REVIEW……….………………………………………………………………….....9 2.1Sustainability and Environmental Concerns…………………………………………………..…18 2.2Sustainability Challenges………………………………………………………………………...18 2.3Cost and Market Challenges……………………………………………………………………..18 CHAPTER THREE.…………………….……………………………………………...……………19 METHODOLOGY...…....…………………………………………………………………….……..19 3.1Particle Size Distribution Test…………..……………………………………………………….19 3.1.1 Apparatus…….………………………………………………………………………………...19 3.1.2 Procedure to Perform Particle Size Distribution Test……………..…………………….……..19 3.2Specific Gravity Test…………..…………………………………………….…………………..20 3.2.1 Apparatus…………….………………………………………………………………………..20 3.2.2 Procedure to Perform Specific Gravity Test……………….………………………….…….…20 3.3Mositure Content Test………………………….…………………………………………..…….21 3.3.1Apparatus…………………………………………………………………………………........21 3.3.2 Procedure to Perform the Mositure Content Test……………………………………….……..21 3.4Atterberg limit Test………………………………...………………………………………....…22 3.4.1Apparatus…………………………………………….……………………………….………..22 3.4.2 Procedure to Perform the Atterberg Limit Test………………………….…..………………...22 3.4.2.1Liquid Limit Test…………………………………………………………………….…....…22 3.4.2.2 Plastic Limit Test………………………………………….…………………………….…...22 3.5These are the Materials Used for Hollow Block Moulding………………………………..…….23 3.5.1 Clay…………………………….…………………………………………………………....…23 3.5.2Cement …..……………………….…………………………………………………………....24 3.5.3 Water…………………………….………….………………………………………...………..24 3.5.4 Sand…………………………….………………….…………………………………………...24 3.5.5 Lime………………..…………………………..……………………………………………....24 3.6Mix Design…………..…………………………………………………………………………...25 3.6.1 Mortar Mix………………..…………………………………………………………………....25 3.6.2. Molding of the Hollow Clay Blocks………………………...……………..….………………….25 3.7 Laboratory Test that is carriedout after the moulding the hollow clay blocks…..…………...…26 3.7.1Curing……..…………………………………………………………………………………...26 3.8Mechanical tests that is carried out on the hollow clay blocks is as follows….…………...…….27 3.8.1. Density Test……………………………………………………………………………...…....27 3.8.2. Compressive Strength Test on Hollow Block……………………………………………..….27 CHAPTER FOUR………..…………………………………………………………………………..29 RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION……………….………………………………….…..29 4.1Particle size distribution for the fine aggregates…………………………….…………………………….29 4.2 Determination of Specific Gravity Test……………………………………………………………………31 4.3 Moisture Content Test…………………………………………………………………………….……….32 4.4 AtterberglimitTest On Clay………………………………………………………………………….....…33 4.5 DENSITY TEST…………………………………………………………………………………………...34 4.6 DETERMINATION OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGHT TEST…...……………………………………...37 CHAPTER FIVE………………………………………………………………………………………………40 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION……………………………………………………………….40 5.1CONCLUSION………………………...………………………………………………………………….40 REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………………………………. 41 LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Shows the particle sizes of soil………………………………………………………….29 Table 4.2: Specific Gravity Test…………………………………………………………………….31 Table 4.3: Moisture content of fine aggregate……………………………………………………...32 Table 4.4: Atterberg Limit Test……………………………………………………………………..33 Table 4.5: Density Test for Hollow Clay Block…………………………………………………….34 Table 4.6: Compressive Strenght Test on Hollow Clay Block……………………………………..37 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 4.1:particle size distribution graph…………………………………………………………….30 Figure 4.2:chart showing Specific Gravity Result…………………………………………………….31 Figure 4.3: chart of moisture content Test……………………………………………………………..32 Figure 4.4:chart of atterberg limit test………………………………………………………………...33 Figure 4.5: chart of density test………………………………………………………………………...36 Figure 4.6: chart of compressive strenght test…………………………………………………………39 LIST OF PLATES PLATE 3.1: Sieve Analysis Test OnAggrgate………………………………………………………..20 PLATE 3.2: Picture of Specifi Gravity Test…………………………………………………………...21 PLATE 3.3: Moisture Content Test…………………………………………………………………....22 PLATE 3.4: Atterberg Limit Test On Clay…………………………………………………………....23 PLATE 3.5: Picture of Clay Soil………………………………………………………………………23 PLATE 3.6: Picture of Cement………………………………………………………………………...24 PLATE 3.7: Picture of Lime…………………………………………………………………………...25 PLATE 3.8: Hollow Block Moulding………………………………………………………………….26 PLATE 3.9: Weighing of blocks to determine density…………………………………………….......27 PLATE 3.10: Picture of Compressive Strenght Test…………………………………………………..28 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION The construction industry is increasingly focusing on sustainable and eco-friendly building materials toreduce environmental impact and improveenergyefficiency. Hollow clayblocks, also known as clay bricks or terracotta blocks, are a promising alternative to traditional solid bricks and concrete blocks. These blocks are lightweight, durable, and provide excellent thermal and acoustic insulation. Thisproject aims to explore the production, properties, and applications of hollow clay blocks in modern construction. Hollow clay blocks are also lightweight, durable with cavities weight, which Improve thermal insulation, and minimize material use. Traditional solid clay bricks consume more raw materials, energy, and labor, contributingto environmental degradation. Background of the Study Hollowclayblocksoffersasustainablealternative by reducing embodied carbon, enhancing cost. One key study (Varshney (2018) explores the properties of hollow concrete blocks, which share similarities with hollow clay blocks in terms of design and application. The paper emphasizes that the compressive strength of hollow blocks varies based on mix proportions and the replacement of aggregates with materials like vermiculite, quarry dust, or cement kiln dust. Although focused on concrete blocks, the principles of void structure and material substitution are applicable to hollow clay blocks, suggesting compressive strengths typically range from 3.5 to 15 MPa, depending on block geometry and composition. The study underscores the blocks' role in reducingstructural dead loads, a benefit also attributed to hollow clay blocks in masonry construction. (Silva et al. (2018), specifically addressing hollow clay block masonry.This study analyzes the compressive strength of masonry prisms made from hollow clay blocks,testedat7and28days,withblockstrengthsrangingfrom6.0toover15.0MPa. Theefficiency ratio (prism strength to blockstrength) was found to vary between 0.25 and 0.40, indicating that the blocks’ performance in assemblies is influenced by mortar strength, bonding patterns, and block geometry. The research highlights cost savings in masonry structures compared to reinforced concrete, with reductions of 25– 30%in structural costs for typical four-story buildings in Brazil, a finding relevant to global construction practices. Thermal performance is another critical aspect of hollow clay blocks. A study published in Coatings (Cabezaet al. (2019) investigates the effect of low-emissivity coatings on the internal cavitysurfaces ofhollowclayblocks. The research demonstratesthat suchtreatments can reducethermal conductivity by 26–45%, depending on the emissivity

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