CHAPTER TWO 2.0LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1Plantain Plantain, an herbaceous climacteric fruit, represents one of the most significant fruit crops and the 5th most important crop in world export trade after coffee, cereals, sugar, and cocoa. Plantain is cultivated in tropical, subtropical, and mostly developing countries of the world with 71 million metric tons of desert plantain mainly from the Cavendish cultivars and 32 million tons of plantain harvested in 2004 (Aurore et al., 2009). World production statistics of plantain are not very accurate as production of fruits in many countries is still at subsistence level of home gardens and small plots that are not often captured in reports (Sole, 2005). South Africa in 2010 was ranked 67 in world plantain production, contributing 0.07% of produce to total world plantain trade. South Africa produces an estimated 400,000 tons of plantain fruits per annum (Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF), 2011) with the fruit cultivated either for the export market or local consumption. Plantain fruit comprises an array of species in the genus Musa of the family Musaceae, with the majority of cultivated varieties arising from the Eumusa species. Two species from the Eumusa group have been traced as the source of almost the majority of known cultivars: Musaacuminata (A genome) and Musa balbisiana (B genome) species (Daniells et al., 2001). Plantain has diploid, triploid, and tetraploid hybrids comprising subspecies of M. acuminata, and between M. acuminata and M. balbisiana (Zhang et al., 2005). Plantain is a starchy fruit having rich contents of indigestible compounds; resistant starch (RS) and nonstarch polysaccharides make up its DF (Ovando-Martinez et al., 2009). At its unripe state, plantain pulp contains about 70% to 80% starch on dry weight basis, which is similar to starch content in endosperm of corn and pulp of white potato. Upon ripening, this starch content is degraded to less than 1% with a concomitant accumulation of sucrose and fructose when the fruit becomes fully ripe. There is thus an increase in sugars, mostly sucrose constituting more than 10%, and total soluble sugar of about 16% or more of fresh weight of fruit (Zhang et al., 2005). Although plantain is produced at any time of the year and widely consumed fresh in most parts of the world, its conversion into processed products, as well as the consumption of these products is slowly developing. Optimization of plantain processing for bioavailability and utilization of nutrients available in this fruit should be scaled up. This review therefore seeks to examine various cultivars of plantain with a view to determining the nutritional and functional ingredients, suitability for industrial utilization and product development, and thereby availing concise information for farmers, exporters, and food processors (Sole, 2005). 2.2Nutritional Values of Plantain Plantains based foods contain most of the micro nutrients required by both children and adult for optimum growth and development of the body. The daily dietary allocations recommended by FAO for children under five years are 14mg of Iron, 10mg of Zinc, and 400µg of vitamin A (Latham, 2001). According to Honfo et al. (2007), the daily consumption of plantain foods by children provided approximately 0.88mg of iron, 0.26mg of zinc, and 24.55 µg Retinol Activity Equivalent (RAE). Besides, for non-pregnant and non-lactating women, FAO recommends a daily intake of 48mg of iron, 12mg of zinc and 800 µg RAE of vitamin A (Latham, 2001). Following these also, Honfo et al. (2007) found that the daily consumption of plantain derived foods for mothers provided approximately 1.80mg of iron, 0.6mg of zinc and 43.35 µg RAE of vitamin A. Plantain relatively has more calories weight for weight than that in the table bananas. 100 g plantain holds about 122 calories, while dessert banana has only 89 calories. Indeed, they are very reliable sources of starch and energy; ensuring food security for millions of inhabitants worldwide. It contains 2.3 g of dietary fiber per 100 g (6% of DRA per 100 g). Adequate amount of dietary-fiber in the food helps normal bowel movements, thereby reducing constipation problems. Fresh plantain has more vitamin C than bananas. 100 g provide 18.4 mg or 31% of daily required levels of this vitamin. Consumption of foods rich in vitamin-C helps the body develop resistance against infectious agents and scavenge harmful oxygen-free radicals. However, boiling and cooking destroys much of this vitamin in plantains (Ayanwale et al., 2016). Plantains carry more vitamin A than bananas. 100 g fresh ripe plantains contain 1127 IU or 37.5% of daily required levels of this vitamin. Besides being a powerful antioxidant, vitamin A plays a vital role in the visual cycle, maintaining healthy mucus membranes, and enhancing skin complexion. As in bananas, they too are rich sources of B-complex vitamins, particularly high in vitamin-B6 (pyridoxine). Pyridoxine is an important B-complex vitamin that has a beneficial role in the treatment of neuritis, anemia, and to decrease homocystine (one of the causative factors for coronary artery disease (CHD) and stroke episodes) levels in the body. In addition, the fruit contains moderate levels of folates, niacin, riboflavin and thiamin. They also provide adequate levels of minerals such as iron, magnesium, and phosphorous. Magnesium is essential for bone strengthening and has a cardiac-protective role as well. Fresh plantains have more potassium than bananas. 100 g fruit provides 499 mg of potassium (358 mg per 100 g for bananas). Potassium is an important component of cell and body fluids that helps control heart rate and blood pressure, countering negative effects of sodium (Ayanwale et al., 2016). 2.3Uses of Plantain Plantain composite bread Plantain production in Nigeria is estimated at about 2.4 million metric tons, which are mostly obtained from the southern states. This accounts for its wide use in diverse ways alongside other staple foods crops in Nigeria. The increasing consciousness for consumption of healthy foods (as prevention is better than cure) has been a major force driving the demand for healthy foods like plantain flour in Nigeria. The demand for plantain flour has been estimated to be in excess of 100,000 tonnes per annum. The current supply level is less than 20% of the estimated demand with only few companies producing on mechanized commercial scale. Popular brands of plantain flour in the Nigerian market include Lemmy, Inutech, Ayoola, Bil, Amazing, DSC and Deluxe. Plantain, the only raw material required for the production of plantain flour is available in commercial quantities in fourteen major plantain and banana growing states in Nigeria, including Edo, Delta, Ondo, Rivers, Cross River, Akwa Ibom, Imo, Abia, Ogun, Oyo, Osun, Anambra, Enugu and Lagos (Adeniji, 2015). Sarawong et al. (2014) incorporated green plantain flour into rice flour and wheat starch as a functional ingredient to produce gluten-free bread. In these trials, an addition of up to 30% green plantain flour resulted in acceptable bread quality with maximum resistant starch content. In a study on composite bread making, different levels of cowpea and plantain flours were mixed with wheat flours to determine the quality of bread so produced. Plantain flour was uniquely processed by blanching at 100 oC in hot water for two minutes, which increased final viscosity, reduced rapidly available glucose and increased bread loaf size. Cowpea was also uniquely processed by soaking, drying, brushing, and then de-hulled. The

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EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT DRYING METHODS ON THE QUALITY PROPERTIES OF PLANTAIN POUNDO FLOUR BY …………………………………. SUBMITTED TO DEPARTMENT OF FOOD TECHNOLOGY SCHOOL OF APPLIED SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC OFFA, KWARA STATE IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF HIGHER NATIONAL DIPLOMA (HND) IN FOOD TECHNOLOGY CHAPTER ONE 1.0INTRODUCTION Plantain botanically known as Musaparadisiaca, from the family Musaceae, is among the food substances known to contain carbohydrates as nutrient with a low fat content. Plantain is a tropical plant that is native to India. It is extensively cultivated in the tropics and is a staple crop for over 70 million people of the sub-Saharan Africa (Paul et al., 2013). It is usually cultivated for its carbohydrate content and can be consumed as an unripe fruit or when ripe. Plantain has been known to provide a number of health benefits apart from serving as food. It promotes healthy digestion, improves affective state, helps in the retention of food and serves as good sources of potassium, calcium, phosphorus and nitrogen, which build and regenerate tissues in the body. It is also a rich source of iron and vitamins, especially vitamins C and E (Mohammad and Saleha, 2011). Drying is the most cost-effective way to increase shelf life of food products. A range of food products are routinely preserved using dehydration, which include grains, marine products, meat products as well as all fruits and vegetables. The food products can have wide ranges of moisture content; as low as 35% in grains and as high as 90% or more in some fruits (e.g. water melon has moisture content as high as 93%) which needs to be reduced to an acceptable value so as to avoid microbial growth. This is generally represented in terms of water activity (which simply means free water available for microbial growth in solids). In addition, each food product needs to be dried in a different way using a suitable dryer type and also by use of appropriate pre and postprocessing so as to gain a satisfactory value addition to the dried product ((Mujumdar and Devahastin, 2008; Chen et al., 2008). Plantains are commonly cooked or otherwise processed and are used either when green or unripe (starchy) or over ripe (sweet). An average plantain has about 220 calories and is a good source of potassium and dietary fiber (Randy et al., 2007). It is rich in carbohydrate, dietary fiber, iron, vitamins and minerals. It is ideal for diabetic, children and pregnant woman and can also be a good supplement for marasmus patients. It also helps to cure anemia and maintain a healthy heart (United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), 2010). Plantain flour is reported to have potent anti-ulcer activity which is attributed to the active ingredient flavonoid leucocyanidin. Furthermore, consumption of plantain flour been noted to reduce systolic blood pressure in humans (Adeogunet al., 2021). In Nigeria, as one of the major staple foods, plantain is processed into various products such as ‘elubo’ (dried half-ripe plantain flour), ‘dodo’ (fried sliced ripe plantain pulp), chips (fried half-ripe pulp); and in addition to yam, it can be pounded to a sticky paste eaten with soup. It can also be processed to food/foodstuffs such as breakfast cereals, baby complementary foods (Folayan and Bifarin, 2011). The mature unripe and ripe plantain fruits are consumed boiled, steamed, baked, pounded, roasted, or sliced and fried into chips (Oluchukwu et al., 2023). Plantains are highly perishable, and significant postharvest losses are unavoidable from farm gate to market, resulting in food insecurity. Post-harvest losses are caused by poor handling, insufficient storage and transportation, and pest and disease infestation of fresh fruits (Lamptey et al., 2019). Postharvest losses are also exacerbated by a lack of postharvest and marketing infrastructure, such as packaging, cold storage, prepackage and distribution, postharvest treatment and washing facilities. Processing unripe plantains into chips and flour, and ripe plantains into fried snacks like 'dodo' are two common indigenous methods of reducing postharvest losses and increasing income for processors (Oluwagbenga et al., 2020). 1.1Justification Plantains are highly perishable, with a substantial proportion of the harvested crop lost from the farm gate to the market place, because of poor handling, storage, and transportation of the fruits (Awoyale et al., 2020). Adeolu and Enesi (2013) had worked on utilization of plantain fruits for different food uses and revealed that losses in plantain may occur in peak production periods when farmers do not harvest the entire crop because of market saturation. Adegunwa et al. (2017) added that plantains are used as an inexpensive source of calories especially in Nigeria and many African countries. Among the product obtainable from plantain is poundo, which is a fast means of well-cooked dough which could be consumed with different indigenous soups such as eforiro, ewedu, egusi, etc. However, the overall physiochemical properties of instant plantain poundo is dependent on the effective processing operations and varieties used; thus, this study seeks to utilize different drying methods for processing of instant plantain poundo to ascertain the difference in their respective physiochemical properties 1.2AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY Aim This study is aimed at evaluating the effects of different drying methods on the quality properties of plantain flour poundo Objectives To produce plantain flour using different drying methods (oven, solar, sun and cabinet drying) To evaluate the proximate composition of the different plantain flours produced To evaluate the functional properties of the different plantain flours produced To evaluate the pasting properties of the different plantain flours produced To carry out sensory evaluation on the different plantain poundo produced CHAPTER TWO 2.0LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1Plantain Plantain, an herbaceous climacteric fruit, represents one of the most significant fruit crops and the 5th most important crop in world export trade after coffee, cereals, sugar, and cocoa. Plantain is cultivated in tropical, subtropical, and mostly developing countries of the world with 71 million metric tons of desert plantain mainly from the Cavendish cultivars and 32 million tons of plantain harvested in 2004 (Aurore et al., 2009). World production statistics of plantain are not very accurate as production of fruits in many countries is still at subsistence level of home gardens and small plots that are not often captured in reports (Sole, 2005). South Africa in 2010 was ranked 67 in world plantain production, contributing 0.07% of produce to total world plantain trade. South Africa produces an estimated 400,000 tons of plantain fruits per annum (Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF), 2011) with the fruit cultivated either for the export market or local consumption. Plantain fruit comprises an array of species in the genus Musa of the family Musaceae, with the majority of cultivated varieties arising from the Eumusa species. Two species from the Eumusa group have been traced as the source of almost the majority of known cultivars: Musaacuminata (A genome) and Musa balbisiana (B genome) species (Daniells et al., 2001). Plantain has diploid, triploid, and tetraploid hybrids comprising subspecies of M. acuminata, and between M. acuminata and M. balbisiana (Zhang et al., 2005). Plantain is a starchy fruit having rich contents of indigestible compounds; resistant starch (RS) and nonstarch polysaccharides make up its DF (Ovando-Martinez et al., 2009). At its unripe state, plantain pulp contains about 70% to 80% starch on dry weight basis, which is similar to starch content in endosperm of corn and pulp of white potato. Upon ripening, this starch content is degraded to less than 1% with a concomitant accumulation of sucrose and fructose when the fruit becomes fully ripe. There is thus

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