CHAPTER TWO 2.0LITERATURE REVIEW Surveying, which has recently also been interchangebly called geometics has traditionally been defined as the science, art and technology of determining the relative position of points above on, or of establishing such points in a more general sense, however, Surveying (geometrics) can b regarded as that discipline, which encompass all methods for measuring and collecting information, and disseminating a variety of resulting product to a wide range of clients. Surveying has been important since the beginning of civilization. It's earliest application were in measuring and making boundaries of property ownership. Throughout the year it's importance has steadily increased with the growing demand for a variety of map and others. Spatially related types of information and expanding need for establishing accurate line and grades to guide construction operations (Ghilani and wolf 2012) Surveying also contributed to, and benefited from, the space program where new equipment and systems were needed to provide precise control for missible aligment and for mapping and chatting portions of the moon and nearby planets. Development in surveying and mapping equipment have now evolved to the point where the traditional instruments that were used until about the 1960s or 1970s the transit, theodolite, dumpy level and steel tape have now been almost completely replaced by an array of new "high tech" instruments. These include electronic total station instruments, which can be used to automatically measure and record horizontal and vertical distance, and horizontal and vertical angles ; and global navigation satellite system (GNSS) such as the global positioning system (GPS) that can provide precise location information for virtually any types of survey . Over the ages, the need for having and establishing control have played an important part in surveying profession, te reason being that there must be a firm plane that is unmovable. Because of this,it have resulted in the study of astronomy using of the sun also the stars in determining direction. However , Surveying deals more than determining direction it also deal with determining the position and been height. Overtime techniques employed in establing control,these methods are : Triangulation,Trilateration and Traversing, these three were prominently used in determining the position of the control (X,Y) and most recently the GPS becomes very useful in establishing control, these operations are used in the creation and extension of control, but before the widely circulation of the GPS , the first three were the only method employed in the creation and densification of controls. Until 1970s, all the control network were setup by a process called triangulation.Two station were established on the ground , and the distance between them (called the " base line") was carefully measured. The relative position of a third station could then be fixed ( with partial redundancy) by measuring all three angles in the triangle between it and the other two station; in further distance needed to be measured, which was an advantage the days when distance could only be measured by tapes , more station could subsequently be added to the network by measuring angles between them and two or more of the station already in the net for a given instrument accuracy and time budget, the best overall control network for a particular area using triangulation is obtained by distributing control station as eventually over the area as possible with well condition triangle and most station visible from at least three others, since each extra station require at least three extra observation to fix its horizontal position, the total number of station is kept as low as possible ar the stage. If further control is subsequently required in part of the area, more station can be established nearby and fixed with reference to the existing station (Ay/mer,20214). The advent of electromagnetic distance measurement (EDM) in about 1970 made distance measurement much easier and cheaper, and meant that many of sides of the triangle in such network could now be measured as well . This has the effect of making any network much "stiffer" and eliminate the possibility of an undetected scale error . However, the use of distance to fix the grid position of station even in two dimension required knowledge of the altitudes of the endpoints. Trilateration is the process of determination of point on a triangle network by measuring their distance with at least one angle being measured. The instrument often employed are the tellurometer,or the geodimeter,(Aylmer 2004). When the area to be controlled is long and thin (e.g a new motor way ) or when each station can only see two others,therefore a system of interlocking triangle is impracticable and so called traverse is used instead in its simplest form, this consist of settings up a total station over a station whos coordinate are known, observing the angels and distance to a station whose position is unknown but which can now be calculated from the information available. The instrument is now setup over the new station, and the process is repeated for each 'unknown' station. The agreement between the calculation co ordinate and the known coordinate for this final station is a measure of the accuracy of the traverse and there are two piece of redundancy in the set of observations, which can be used to give improved estimate of the position of all unknown station in the traverse,(Alymer 2004). This network work more like the triangulation and trilateration network they can be use for either large area or for small areas.unlike the triangulation and trilateration method however, the GPS receiver is not an optical Instrument, it's operation rely implicitly on a satellite in sapce .And edge of GPS network over the other is that it conserves time ,energy,it is economical and it is operational anytime either in the day or night and maximally it depedence on established control is relative rather than absolute unlike its contemporary (Encyclopedia britannica ,2010). Duggal (2006) defined control point as an identifiable position on the earth’s surface whose coordinates are determined with respect to a defined reference system with a national, state or local origin. It is very necessaryin survey to attach any survey work to reference known point (existing control station) which are properly marked in the field and whose relative position are known by precision since success of any survey work depend on them. Asoegwu (1991), defined control point as identifiable positions on the surface of the earth whose coordinate are determined with respect to a define reference system with a nation, state or local origin. Generally, control is a concept of surveying which serves as basis for orienting or checking subordinate survey regardless of its order of accuracy, the process of establishing this control is known as control establishment. Controls are used for orientation in any survey operation and for this it must be of high degree of accuracy though high precision determination of control position is the corner stone of surveying. Moreover, in surveying control can be describe as a basic concept for framework, needed by any survey operation, regard less of its size in order for it to be surveyed at accuracy specified. Control serves as a basic for orienting or checking subordinate survey work in regard less of its order of accuracy. Oliver

[Preview only] Buy to download the full project.

THIRD ORDER ESTABLISHMENT FROM FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC OFFA MAIN GATE TO ADESOYE COLLEGE VIA AMUYO ROAD BY: ……………………………….. SUBMITTED TO DEPARTMENT OF SURVETING AND GEO – INFORMATICS SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC OFFA, KWRA STATE. IMPARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF NATIONAL DIPLOMA (ND) IN SURVEYING AND GEO INFORMATICS. CERTIFICATE I hereby certify that all the information contained in this project report was obtained as a result of observation and measurements made by me and the survey was carried out in accordance with survey was carried out in accordance with survey regulation and departmental instructions. ______________________ ______________________ CERTIFICATION DEDICATION I dedicate this project to Almighty God, whose grace and guidance have been my source of strength and inspiration. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Firstly,I would like to express my utmost gratitude to Almighty God for his guidance, blessings, and strength throughout the journey. Without his grace, none of this would have been possible. I would like to extend my sincere appreciation to my Head of Department the person of Surv. as made this experience more enriching. Thank you all for your contributions to the success to this project. CHAPTER ONE 1.0INTRODUTION 1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY Binker and Minnick, 2012) Surveying can be defined as the art, science and technology of making measurements of relative position of points above, on and beneath the earth surface and plotting of these measurements to some suitable scale to form a map or plan. Surveying is also defined by (Ziwa, 2016) as the art, science of making measurement of the relative position of points of natural and artificial features on the earth surface and plotting of such measurement with suitable scale on a sheet to form a plan or map. Van der Marel, H. (2014) “Surveying has to do with the determination of the relative spatial location of points on or near the surface of the earth.” They further buttressed the above definition by saying that it is the art of measuring horizontal and vertical distances between object, measuring angles between lines, determining the direction of lines, and establishing points by predetermine angular and linear measurements. Adero, N. (2023) defined surveying as a mathematical aspect of science which is used to determine and delineate the form, extent and position of features on or beneath the earth surface. It also controls major construction work for engineering project such as bridges, railways and roads. With surveying, it helps man to: Improve his environment in a way that has brought constant development to life and environment. It also serves as the bed rock of socio economic development. In all part of environmental development, surveying is usually the beginner and the final profession in the development. Surveying has been in existence from the beginning of human race. It is generally known that surveying is the bedrock of every meaningful development on or above the earth’s surface. It also can be defined as a mathematical aspect of science which is used to determine the limit, size and position of features on or beneath the earth’s surface (Adero, 2023) Surveying is a process of determining the relative position of natural and man-made features on or under the earth surface earth's surface, the presentation of this information either graphically in the form of plans or numerically in the form of tables, and the setting out of measurements on the earth's surface. It involve measurement calculations, the production of plans and the determination of specific location (Ziwa, 2016). The surveyor may be called on to determine heights and distances; to set out buildings, bridges, and roadways; to determine areas and volumes and to draw a plan at a predetermined scale. It is quite probable that surveying had its origins in ancient Egypt. The Great pyramid of Khufu at Giza was built c. 2700 BC, 755 feet long and 480 feet high. It’s nearly perfect squareness and north-south orientation affirm the ancient Egyptians command of surveying Evidence of some form of boundaries surviving as early as 1400 BC has been found in the fertile valleys and plans of the Tigris, Euphrates and Nile rivers. Clay tablets of the Sumerians show records of land measurement and planes of cities and nearby agricultural areas. There is a representation of land measurement on the wall of a tomb at Thebes in Egypt (1400BC) showing head and rear chainmen measuring a grain field with what appears to be a rope with knots or marks at uniform intervals. Other persons are shown. Two are of high estate, according to their clothing (Abu Rqaq, and Abdalhady, 2021). CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING There are two major categories of surveying: i.Plane SurveyingPlane surveying deals with areas of limited extent and it is assumed that the cart’s surface is a plane and therefore no corrections necessary for the earth's curvature. ii.Geodetic Surveying Geodetic surveying is concerned with determining the size and shape of the earth and it also provides a high-accuracy framework for the control of lower order surveys. The highest standards of accuracy are necessary. Geodetic surveys cover relatively large areas (e g a state or country) for which the effects of earth curvature must be considered (Lague et al., 2013) Branches of surveying Lague et al. (2013) further discuss that apart from the two main categories, we may also classify surveys according to their different branches and those disciplines directly associated with surveying: Control surveying Control surveying is a body of surveys that establish reference points to use as startingpositions for future surveys work. Most others forms of surveying will contain elements of control surveying. Also, control surveying is the precise position of series of stations distributed over an area to serve as the origin or reference to be used for checking ofsubsequent surveys to be used in engineering projects like property delineation, topographic. Control is developed to create a framework around which other surveys can be adjusted. These control surveys are used for accurate mapping projects in the construction of underground utility systems, roadways, power lines, tunnels and many other high precision projects, Gresham and associates, Incorporates and complete range of global positioning technology including static GPS, theodolite to provide high precision solutions for horizontal and vertical control monumentation. Control Surveying is the determination of the precise position of a series of stations distributed over an area to serve as the origin or reference to be used for checking of subsequent surveys to be used in engineering projects like property delineation, topographic and hydrographic mapping, and construction planning and design. Control networks which cover the whole country have become been conducted with better accuracy and less stringent technique, with the use of artificial satellites. These stations are linked to local networks which have been adopted for special surveys connected with projects such as dams, roads, railways and pipelines, large or small construction sites, etc. The purpose of a control system is to prevent the accumulation of errors, by connecting detail work to a consistent geometrical system of points, which are accurate enough for the project. Great care is taken to ensure that this control is sufficiently accurate. There was a time when geodetic control points consisted of triangulation networks marked by observation pillars. In the Philippines, many triangulation stations have been located on top of towers which had been placed on mountain summits to answer the problem of inter-visibility. But because of the ease with which positions can be established by satellite systems, which eliminated the inter-visibility requirement, there has been less need for establishing so many points. Gradually, as the

[Preview only] Buy to download the full project.